The whole pathway is pure chemistry ... which certainly lacked such sophisticated protein machinery as the ATP synthase. There are a few possible abiotic mechanisms, presently under scrutiny ...

Ancient microbes illustrate a particular kind of respiration in which carbon dioxide and hydrogen are combined to form acetic acid.

In a recent study published in Nature, researchers from the United States of America investigated how cells separate competing metabolic pathways ... triphosphate (ATP) synthase, and the other ...